THE PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF LAWYERS: EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE, MULTICULTURALISM & ETHICS
PROFESSOR MARJORIE A. SILVER 1
I. Introduction
Rule 1.1 of the American Bar Association's Model Rules of Professional Conduct provides that "competent [legal] representation requires the legal knowledge, skill, thoroughness and preparation reasonably necessary for the representation." Nowhere within that definition, or in the comments that explicate the rule, is there anything specifically stating that a lawyer need have any familiarity with psychological theory, or any training in intra- or interpersonal skills development, or in cross-culturalism. The premise of this paper is that such knowledge and skills are necessary for lawyers to practice competently, that the legal profession should so recognize, and that legal education has an obligation to insure that lawyers receive the necessary training.
American lawyers are well trained on how to analyze, reason and make arguments. Traditional legal practice contemplates that lawyers will serve their clients' legal needs. Thus lawyers interpret laws and regulations for their clients. They advise clients about the legality of contemplated acts. They draft legal documents. They conduct negotiations. They litigate. Over the past decade or so, various schools of thought have evolved that recognize that realities other than law and legal practices play an important role in rendering the best representation to the client. Professor Susan Daicoff coined the term the Comprehensive Law Movement to capture the various strands or theories of these movements, and called them "vectors": different phenomena, all moving towards a common goal. The vectors are all part of a "family" characterized by an interest in optimizing human well-being. They include the theoretical lenses of Therapeutic Jurisprudence, Procedural Justice, Holistic Justice, Creative Problem-solving, and Preventive Law and the processes of Collaborative Law, Restorative Justice, Transformative Mediation and Problem-solving courts.2 What they promise are alternative approaches to the practice of law and administration of justice that can be "exciting, invigorating, positive, therapeutic, curative, restorative, creative, and inspiring." 3 These approaches require a variety of skills not traditionally taught as part of a sound, basic legal education.
Lawyers need to develop intra- and inter-personal skills. They require sufficient familiarity with basic psychological principles so that they can respond appropriately to their clients' needs. They should understand how the psyche and emotions may affect them in their relationships with their clients. Furthermore competent lawyers ought to appreciate the life experiences of people different from themselves, and should have the knowledge and skill sets necessary for cross-cultural representation.
II. Emotional Competence, Psychological-Mindedness and Lawyering
A. Emotional Competence and Legal Education
Daniel Goleman introduced the term "Emotional Intelligence" to mainstream American culture4 several years ago with his best-selling trade publication of the same name. 5 Goleman's theories built on the work of psychologist and educator Howard Gardner who had recognized multiple definitions of what we normally consider intelligence-that which we measure by a standardized intelligence quotient (I.Q.) examination. Among these other attributes are inter- and intrapersonal intelligence:
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them. Successful sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders are all likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence . . . is a correlative ability, turned inward. . . . [it is] knowledge of the internal aspects of a person: access to one's own feeling life, one's range of emotions, the capacity to effect discriminations among these emotions and eventually to label them and to draw upon them as a means of understanding and guiding one's own behavior. A person with good intrapersonal intelligence has a viable and effective model of himself or herself. 6
Gardner and others recognized that while these skills might be more highly developed in some people than in others, they were skills that could be taught and learned. 7 Goleman, writing for a mass audience, made a persuasive case that success in life had more to do with emotional intelligence than with academic or intellectual intelligence, and he promoted the actualization of emotional intelligence as a blueprint for living. 8 It is interesting, though not surprising, that Gardner did not count lawyers among those who are "likely to be individuals with high degrees of interpersonal intelligence." Nonetheless, emotional intelligence-or emotional competence, as I prefer to call it to emphasize that these are skills that can be learned, is necessary for competent lawyering.
It would be no exaggeration to say that legal education in the United States 9 does little to encourage the cultivation of emotional competence and psychological-mindedness among law students. Studies have shown that the psychological profile of the typical law student or lawyer favors thinking over feeling. 10 This inclination is then reinforced through the use of the Socratic Method as the principal teaching tool in traditional legal education. From their first day in law school, students are encouraged to put their feelings aside, and learn to make rational, logical, persuasive arguments based on the law.
Concerns about this approach to legal education are not new. Andrew Watson, a psychiatrist on the law faculty of my alma mater, the University of Pennsylvania law school, critiqued the Socratic Method thirty-five years ago:
The Socratic Method exaggerates, and in a sense, distorts the importance of intellect.. . . Analytical skill is the hallmark of a good lawyer and a crucially important tool. However, when the Socratic Method leads to an ablation of emotional awareness, it can have a seriously distorting effect. I recall my surprise when I first heard this stated as a desired goal in the development of lawyers. A very famous lawyer, widely known for his writing on professional ethics, vigorously urged a new class of law students to eliminate their emotions in order to become what he termed a "good lawyer." While I agree completely that emotions can thoroughly disrupt a lawyer's skill, I cannot overstate the folly of attempting to eliminate them. Emotions are part and parcel of the biological reactivity of the human animal and are therefore irremovable. While they may be modified and grotesquely distorted, they are always present to influence all human behavior, even that of lawyers. The Socratic Method reinforces the false image that it is possible to get rid of emotion, and the nature of the Socratic arena in some law schools makes it sound possible to achieve this impossible goal. 11
As compelling as his writing was, Watson failed, in his era, to have any significant impact on the development of legal education. For whatever reason that was so, his insights resonate today for those of us committed to practicing a more humanistic and therapeutic approach to lawyering, to practice law as a healing profession.
Human beings are simultaneously rational and emotional, and to deny the emotional component does not cause emotions to disappear; it merely pushes them below the surface, making them a taboo subject for "lawyerly" discourse. Traditional legal education has failed to prepare lawyers for what they will likely face in practice: clients whose legal needs are only a piece of their needs, needs often complicated by socio-psychological factors of which even the client may be substantially unaware. 12 To represent the whole client, lawyers need to understand how psychological phenomena may affect their relationship with their clients.
B. Avoiding Emotional Interference
That same great Greek philosopher who is praised and denigrated for giving us the Socratic Method, also was the alleged author of the oft quoted phrase: The unexamined life is not worth living." 13 Another Greek exhorted us to "Know thyself." 14 Lawyers, like other mortals, ought heed this wise counsel.
My interest in the relationship of emotions and psychology to lawyering began many years ago in a Professional Responsibility class I was teaching. The class was exploring the ethical problems of attorneys having sexual relationships with their clients. I asked the class: "What if an attorney develops strong amorous feelings towards a client, but doesn't act on them? Might that not muck up the lawyer/client relationship? Students were aghast that I would even consider that as something with which they, as lawyers-in-training, should be concerned. "Thought police!" "1984!" they exclaimed. 15
Yet psychotherapists and others in counseling relationships with clients are trained to anticipate that such feelings (known as countertransference 16) may well develop in their professional relationships. And they are trained on how to handle these feelings, in order to guard the integrity of the counseling relationship, and to keep such feelings from adversely affecting the care they render to their clients. 17 Lawyers, on the other hand, rarely contemplate that they may act in ways towards their clients affected by feelings of which they may be relatively unaware.
Clients' emotional complexities present special challenges for their lawyers. This is most evident when the clients' legal needs arise from an emotionally-charged situation, such as a divorce action, a criminal charge or an immigration deportation proceeding. 18 A spouse facing a divorce action may be so seized with anger, or engaged in denial, that she is incapable of making sound legal decisions. The competent lawyer needs to be able to recognize when this is occurring and respond in a way to further the professional relationship. Massachusetts psychologist and author of The Family Lawyer's Guide to Building Successful Client Relationships, Sanford Portnoy, has developed a specialization in educating matrimonial lawyers about basic psychological concepts. Portnoy counsels lawyers on how they can use this knowledge to help clients make sound decisions, including the decision to seek the assistance of other professionals when appropriate. 19 By focusing on the needs of the whole client, the lawyer can achieve not only better legal outcomes for the client, but more therapeutic outcomes as well.
Working with trauma victims presents another situation where a lawyer needs to have basic psychological competence. In the wake of the tragedy of September 11th, 2001, the Association of the Bar of the City of New York mobilized a pro bono response unlike any other in history. Thousands of lawyers sought and received training as facilitators, legal liaisons to individuals and families who lost loved ones and livelihoods in the terrorist attacks. These legal problem-solvers provided services that ran the gamut of the clients' legal needs. In addition to assisting in obtaining expedited death certificates, arranging for estate administration, and filing claims for death benefits, lawyer/facilitators, backed by expert mentors, helped clients with landlord/tenant, insurance, and family law problems. I was one of the attorneys who received such training. 20
A component of the training was a presentation by a social worker who was an expert on trauma. She discussed what we lawyers might anticipate when we met with our clients, and how the signs and symptoms of trauma might present themselves. Not only did she talk about the experience of the client who has suffered the traumatic loss of a loved one, or who had witnessed the devastating destruction of the World Trade Center Towers, she shared what that encounter might be like for the attorney. We, too, might experience those signs and symptoms, because we had all been affected by the traumatic events of September 11th. 21
Professor Jean Koh Peters, a clinical professor at Yale University Law School, has written about her experiences in representing children in child protection proceedings. 22 Many of the clinic's clients are victims of trauma. What Professor Peters discovered in doing this work was that she and her students often experienced many of the symptoms their clients experienced, including nightmares, panic attacks, inability to concentrate or find pleasure in life, and emotional numbness. This phenomenon is known in the literature as vicarious or secondary trauma, and is a risk for all caregivers who engage empathically with clients who have suffered trauma. 23 In recent years, much has been written about vicarious trauma, most of it aimed primarily at therapists and social workers. As Peters demonstrates, lawyers who work with trauma victims are also at risk, and need to know what to expect, how to minimize the chance of suffering from vicarious trauma, how to recognize the symptoms and what to do when it nonetheless occurs. 24 The first line of defense against the effects of vicarious trauma is knowledge. 25 A consult with a trauma specialist or some familiarity with the literature on vicarious trauma would be of great benefit.
Professor Lynda Murdoch has noted that lawyers who practice with a therapeutic orientation are likely at a higher risk to suffer vicarious trauma, as well as other hazards of care giving. 26 These hazards include over identification with the client, challenges in finding an appropriate balance between neutrality and involvement, as well as the need to identify and manage transference and countertransference. 27 Thus, as increasing numbers of lawyers move towards practicing law as a healing profession, the greater the need for training in the knowledge, skills and values necessary to develop psychological-mindedness, to anticipate psychological hazards, and to develop strategies to prevent or control their interference in the professional relationship. In addition, lawyers must learn to tend to their own physical and emotional needs.
Caregivers who are burned out, suffering from stress, depression, vicarious trauma or other debilitations, are generally unable to do their best for their clients. It is the lawyer's ethical responsibility to care for herself-be it through diet, exercise, music, meditation, spending time with loved ones and friends, psychotherapy, or all of the above. 28 For if the caregiver does not meet her own emotional, psychological and physical needs, she will be in no position to competently care for her client. 29 As psychotherapists Neumann and Gamble write, "if therapists [substitute attorneys] do not care for themselves, they are at much greater risk of hurting their clients." 30 Self-care is thus another vital component of professional competency.
III. Multi-cultural Competence.
Conceptually, multi-cultural competence overlaps with, but is not entirely subsumed by, emotional competence. I find it useful to view them as intersecting circles, both of which intersect with legal skills and knowledge to produce good lawyering.
Multi-cultural, or cross-cultural, competence requires a combination of knowledge, skills and values that enable successful inter-cultural relationships. As with issues affecting other aspects of our emotional life, only through critical self-examination can we begin to uncover how our unconscious biases and stereotypes affect our views of people who are different than ourselves. And only through learning about different cultures, are we able to begin to appreciate the life experiences of those people.
Human beings-including lawyers-make assumptions about people based on ingrained, generally unconscious stereotypes that may have little or no basis in reality. When lawyers represent clients who are different from themselves, these erroneous assumptions may undermine the lawyer/client relationship and thus threaten the quality or competency of the representation itself. Despite the increasingly diverse world in which most American lawyers practice, few have received any training on cross-cultural representation.31 Once again, we can learn a great deal from social scientists who have, for some time, recognized and addressed the need for multicultural competency and diversity training.32 Some members of the legal profession have begun to focus on the importance of developing cross-cultural competence;33 however we are still far from recognizing it as a basic element of professional competence.
To some degree, all human relationships are cross-cultural, as no two of us approach the world in quite the same way.34 All differences present challenges to communication and understanding-think parent/teenager, husband/wife. But some cultural differences create more serious obstacles to communication and understanding than others. In the United States, race is the most significant and most difficult of all the various cultural issues that complicate interpersonal relationships.35 A critical part of our nation's history, slavery and its effects linger in forms both obvious and subtle. Race affects the daily experiences of people of color in a myriad of ways that are largely invisible to "people of pallor"36. Realtors steer people of color away from buying houses in white neighborhoods, despite laws forbidding them to do so. Taxi cabs won't stop for black men-even for well-dressed professionals. Teachers make assumptions about the abilities of black children, and don't even realize they are doing it. For people of all races, unexamined, frequently unconscious, stereotypes affect our reaction to skin color.37
In a recent article, social work professors Carolyn Copps Hartley and Carrie Petrucci note similarities between the generalist approach to social work and therapeutic jurisprudence.38 Drawing upon experience in their discipline, they advocate cultural competency training for lawyers with a therapeutic orientation.39 As they note, numerous studies support the effectiveness of cultural competency education for helpers in counseling relationships.40 The lawyer who seeks an outcome for his client that will be beneficial emotionally as well as legally must be authentic, empathic and nonjudgmental.41 To achieve that, lawyers who represent clients of races other than their own need some historical and contextual understanding of their clients' racial experiences. Lawyers, like other professionals in helping relationships, require awareness of how race occurs to them and for them; that is, they must seek to make their own unconscious biases conscious. And while race may be the most critical attribute, it is only one of the cultural differences that can interfere with competent representation.
The need for cross-cultural education is especially acute for lawyers working with traditionally disadvantaged client populations. Among these are public defenders working in the criminal justice system42 and other lawyers who represent poor people, whose clients are disproportionately minorities and immigrants. In an article aimed primarily at legal services attorneys, Ellen Hemley, training director of the Massachusetts Law Reform Institute, describes the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for representing "the whole client." Whole client representation, Hemley writes, means seeing clients not only as "poor people" or as legal issues, but requires the lawyer to recognize the client's strengths and resources, as well as the client's challenges and needs. It means paying attention to the client's non-legal, as well as legal needs. Cultural competency is a component of whole client representation. "When we understand the nuances of clients' experiences and the lenses through which they see the world, we are in a better position to serve them and achieve the best outcomes on their behalf."43 Misunderstood cultural differences can negatively affect the representation of the client.44
Hemley encourages legal aid lawyers to develop the requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes of cross-cultural competency.45 First is to inquire how people from different cultures approach different issues. For example, how do Hmong people view health care, or child protective services? How do women from particular Asian or Hispanic cultures react to domestic violence? Hemley notes that cultural competence does not mean that one knows all the answers. Rather, it means one knows what questions to ask.46 Lawyers engaged in cross-cultural representation should learn about (1) the history and sociopolitical situation in the client's country of origin; (2) how culture affects the client's experience of different legal institutions; (3) how courts and other legal institutions respond to persons from client's culture; and (4) how cultural experience affects the client's decision-making processes.
The lawyer also needs to know how to (1) build rapport with clients from different cultures; (2) listen effectively; and (3) work through interpreters. The lawyer should (1) have awareness of her own values and belief systems; (2) recognize her attitudes towards persons of different cultures; (3) recognize differences among cultures; (4) understand how historic distrust affects interactions with clients; (5) recognize the tendency to misjudge based on learned expectations; and (6) have a willingness to learn about different cultures.47
Carol Fisler, Project Director for the Brooklyn Mental Health Court, Center for Court Innovation,48 recently shared with me an example of how cultural ignorance can impair representation of the client. Mental health courts, like other problem-solving courts are instruments for a therapeutic approach to criminal justice. Posit a client who (1) has mental health issues; (2) is charged with a crime in which guilt appears to be clear; and (3) is given the choice to accept diversion to the mental health court in lieu of pursing his right to go to trial. Attorneys with a therapeutic orientation would likely counsel the client in favor of participating in the mental health court's program, which in many instances, would enable the client to avoid a criminal record.
Carol learned, however, that among many inner-city communities, the stigma of mental illness is far worse than the stigma of a criminal record. If the lawyer is unaware of this, she runs the risk of failing to counsel her client as to what is the best course for that client. On the other hand, a lawyer cannot assume that any given cultural generalization applies to any given individual from that culture. The lawyer must guard against assumptions based on stereotypes, regardless of whether those stereotypes are generally true. The client might prefer the therapeutic possibilities despite the social stigma that participation in the program may cause. Understanding the cultural mores is necessary, but not sufficient. To borrow a concept from social work, the competent lawyer must strive to meet the client where the client is.49 And the client is an autonomous individual as well as a member of his culture.
IV. Conclusion: Good Work and Professional Competence
Given my perspective as a law professor, I have focused on the lawyer/client relationship. However, the importance of psychological-mindedness, emotional and multi-cultural competence certainly is not limited to lawyering. All of us in helping, healing professions need to develop these competencies to best serve our patients, clients and students. We should look to foster interdisciplinary, as well as international, alliances. We have much to learn from each other, including learning when we need to refer our patients, clients and students to other professionals, when it is in their best interest to do so.50 In serving the "whole" person, we will serve ourselves as well. The intrinsic rewards can be powerful, and can enhance our professional and personal well-being.51 So I offer this as one answer for you to think about to the question posed by this Conference: "Professional Responsibilities: Where to now?"
NOTES
1 Professor of Law, Touro College Law Center, Huntington, New York.
2 Susan Daicoff, The Role of Therapeutic Jurisprudence within the Comprehensive Law Movement in PRACTICING THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE: LAW AS A HELPING PROFESSION 465 (Dennis P. Stolle, David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick, eds. 2000).
3 Susan Daicoff, The Comprehensive Law Movement, 19 TOURO L. REV. 825, 846 (2004).
4 I apologize for any ethnocentricity in my use of the term "American." In truth, my knowledge is limited to its popularity in the United States.
5 DANIEL GOLEMAN, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (1997).
6 HOWARD GARDNER, MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: THE THEORY IN PRACTICE 9, 24-25 (1993).
7 See Peter Salovey & John D. Mayer, Emotional Intelligence, 9(3) IMAGINATION, COGNITION AND PERSONALITY 191 (1989-90).
8 Goleman, supra note 5. Goleman subsequently published WORKING WITH EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (1998).
9 I do not know whether this is a prevalent practice worldwide. I am aware, thanks to a Russian masters in law student I had the pleasure to teach, that the required curriculum in her country for law students included courses on basic psychology.
10 See, e.g., Andrew S. Watson, The Quest for Professional Competence: Psychological Aspects of Legal Education, 37 UNIV. CINN. L. REV. 91 (1997); Susan Daicoff, Lawyer, Know Thyself: A Review of Empirical Research on Attorney Attributes Bearing on Professionalism, 46 AM. U. L. REV. 1337, 1361-62 (1997)
11 Watson, supra note 10 at 124 (emphasis added).
12 Of course, not all lawyers will do direct client representation, and consequently these skills will be of lesser importance to those who do not.
13 Socrates in PLATO, APOLOGY 38a, in THE OXFORD DICTIONARY OF QUOTATIONS 512 (3d ed. 1986).
14 Inscription at the Delphic Oracle, from PLUTARCH, MORALS in JOHN BARTLETT, FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS, 62 (15th ed. 1980).
15 Marjorie A. Silver, Love, Hate and Other Emotional Interference in the Lawyer/Client Relationship (hereinafter Love & Hate), 6 CLIN. L. REV. 259, 278-79 (1999). A student in my class this past semester perceptively observed that sexual tension in a relationship may cause as many or more problems than consummated sex.
16 Id. at 263-65.
17 Id. at 271-72.
18 See Silver, Love & Hate, supra note 15 at 299-300.
19 SANFORD M. PORTNOY, THE FAMILY LAWYERS' GUIDE TO BUILDING SUCCESSFUL CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS (Section of Family Law, American Bar Association 2000).
20 Marjorie A. Silver, September 11th, Pro Bono, and Trauma (hereinafter "September 11th") - CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN LAW - (forthcoming 2004).
21 Id.
22 JEAN KOH PETERS, REPRESENTING CHILDREN IN CHILD PROTECTIVE: PROCEEDINGS: ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL DIMENSIONS, Ch. 9: The Lawyer-as-Context II: Fulfilling the Ethical Duty to Address Occupational Hazards that Imperil Client Service: Stress, Burnout, Vicarious Traumatization 421-87 (2d ed. LexisNexis, 2001).
23 Marjorie A. Silver, Sanford Portnoy, &Jean Koh Peters, Stress, Burnout, Vicarious Trauma, and Other Emotional Realities in the Lawyer/Client Relationship: A Panel Discussion, 19 TOURO L. REV. 847, 858 (2004) (comments of Professor Peters).
24 Peters, supra note 22.
25 Silver, September 11th, supra note 20.
26 Lynda L. Murdoch, Psychological Consequences of Adopting a Therapeutic Lawyering Approach: Pitfalls and Protective Strategies, 24 SEATTLE UNIV. L. REV. 483 (2000).
27 Id.
28 Peters, supra note 22 at 444 citing Debra A. Neumann & Sarah J. Gamble, Issues in the Professional Development of Psychotherapists: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in the New Trauma Therapist, 32 PSYCHOTHERAPY 341, 345 (1995).
29 Id.
30 Neumann & Gamble, supra note 28.
31 Some notable exceptions include students of Professor Sue Bryant of The Law School of the City of New York at Queens College (CUNY Law School), and Professor Jean Koh Peters at Yale University Law School. See PETERS, supra note 22, Ch. 6: Representing the Child-in-Context: Five Habits of Cross-Cultural Lawyering; Susan Bryant, The Five Habits: Building Cultural Competence in Lawyers, 8 CLIN. L. REV. 33 (2001).
32 "Some time" is a relative term. The need for, and methods of implementation of, this training has received serious attention in the social science literature only over the past two decades or so. See, e.g., ANTHONY J. MARSELLA & PAUL B. PEDERSEN, CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 16 (1981); LARRY A. SAMOVAR & RICHARD E. PORTER, INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: A READER (4th ed., 1985); Paul Pedersen, Ten Frequent Assumptions of Cultural Bias in Counseling, 15 JOURNAL OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT16 (1987); WOODROW M. PARKER, CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISING: A PRIMER FOR MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING (1988); DERALD WING SUE & DAVID SUE, COUNSELING THE CULTURALLY DIFFERENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE (2d. ed 1990).
33 See, e.g., Ellen Hemley, Representing the Whole Client, J. Poverty Law & Pol'y 483-87 (Clearinghouse Review, Jan.-Feb. 2003)
34 See Paul Pedersen, supra note 32 at 23 ("All counseling is, to a greater or lesser extent, cross-cultural.")
35 Marjorie A. Silver, Emotional Competence, Multicultural Lawyering and Race, 3 FLA. COASTAL L. REV. 219, 231-35 (2002).
36 I borrow this term for Caucasians from STEPHEN L. CARTER, THE EMPEROR OF OCEAN PARK (2002).
37 David Berreby, How, But Not Why, the Brain Distinguishes Race, N.Y.TIMES, Sept. 5, 2000, at F3.
38 Carolyn Copps Hartley & Carrie J. Petrucci, Justice, Ethics and Interdisciplinary Teaching and Practice: Practicing Culturally Competent Therapeutic Jurisprudence: A Collaboration Between Social Work and Law, 14 WASH. U. J. L. & POL'Y 133, 135 (2004).
39 Id.
40 Id. at 169-70.
41 Id. at 153 (citing Bruce J. Winick, Redefining the Role of the Criminal Defense Lawyer at Plea Bargaining and Sentencing: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence/Preventive Law Model 245, 287 in PRACTICING THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE: LAW AS A HELPING PROFESSION (Dennis P. Stolle, David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick, eds. 2000).
42 See Harley & Petrucci, supra note 38 at 144-151.
43 Hemley, supra note 33 at 483.
44 Id. at 484.
45 Id. at 485.
46 Id. at 485.
47 Id.
48 See www.courtinnovation.org
49 See Harley & Petrucci, supra note 38 at 143.
50 See Hemley, supra note 33 at 487.
51 See STEVEN KEEVA, TRANSFORMING PRACTICES: FINDING JOY AND SATISFACTION IN THE LEGAL LIFE (1999).
Copyright 2004. Greek Legal and Medical Conference